Dominant chemistry
Lithium-ion
EV, grid storage, portable electronics, power tools
Oldest chemistry
Lead-acid
Automotive starter batteries, UPS, backup power
Hybrid vehicles
NiMH
Hybrid vehicles, power tools, low-cost electronics
Grid-scale storage
Vanadium flow
Long-duration (4–12 h) stationary storage
Lithium-ion Battery Materials
The dominant battery chemistry today. Cathode composition varies (NMC, NCA, LFP, LCO, LMO), but anode is almost always graphite with small additions of silicon. Electrolyte is a lithium salt dissolved in organic solvents.
| Material | Chemical form | Role | Used in |
|---|---|---|---|
| Lithium |
Li₂CO₃ lithium carbonate LiOH·H₂O lithium hydroxide monohydrate LiPF₆ in electrolyte salt |
cathode precursorelectrolyte | All Li-ion (NMC, NCA, LFP, LCO, LMO) |
| Cobalt | CoSO₄·7H₂O cobalt sulfate heptahydrate | cathode precursor | NMC, NCA, LCO |
| Nickel | NiSO₄·6H₂O nickel sulfate hexahydrate (Class 1 Ni) | cathode precursor | NMC, NCA (high-Ni cathodes: NMC 811, 622) |
| Manganese | MnSO₄·H₂O manganese sulfate monohydrate | cathode precursor | NMC, LMO, Na-ion (emerging) |
| Aluminium |
Al metal (0.3–6% doping in NCA) Al foil (cathode current collector) |
cathode dopantcurrent collector | NCA (LiNi₀.₈Co₀.₁₅Al₀.₀₅O₂), all Li-ion (foil) |
| Copper | Cu high-purity foil (6–12 μm) | anode current collector | All Li-ion (anode side) |
| Iron | LiFePO₄ (LFP, iron phosphate cathode) | cathode | LFP — fastest-growing chemistry (China EV, grid storage) |
| Phosphorus | LiFePO₄ as phosphate group LiPF₆ as hexafluorophosphate (electrolyte salt) |
cathode (LFP)electrolyte | LFP cathodes, all Li-ion electrolyte |
| Graphite | C natural or synthetic graphite (spherical, coated) | anode (active material) | All Li-ion (>90% by mass of the anode) |
| Silicon | SiO silicon monoxide, Si metallic (nanostructured) | anode additive | High-energy Li-ion (5–15% Si blend with graphite) |
| Fluorine | LiPF₆, PVDF binder | electrolyte saltbinder | All Li-ion |
Note on precursor vs battery grade: Cobalt and nickel sulfates must be "battery grade" — far higher purity (typically ≥99.9%, with strict trace-metal limits) than chemical-grade commodity sulfate. This is why Class 1 nickel (refined cathode, briquettes, powder) commands a premium over Class 2 (ferronickel, nickel pig iron).
Li₂CO₃ vs LiOH — which cathode needs which
Both are lithium salts used as cathode precursors. The choice is dictated by the target cathode chemistry: high-nickel cathodes (NMC 811, NCA) need lithium hydroxide because it reacts at lower temperatures and avoids nickel oxidation. Lower-nickel and LFP cathodes can use cheaper lithium carbonate.
Lithium carbonate
Li₂CO₃
- Li content~18.8% by mass
- Calcination~900 °C (higher)
- CathodesLFP, LCO, LMO, NMC 111 / 532
- SolubilityLow in water (~13 g/L)
- SourceBrine (direct), spodumene (via sulfate)
- Price tierLower (~30% cheaper per kg Li)
- StorageEasier — not hygroscopic, not caustic
Lithium hydroxide
LiOH·H₂O
- Li content~16.5% by mass (monohydrate)
- Calcination~700 °C (lower — key for high-Ni)
- CathodesNMC 622 / 811 / 9.5.5, NCA, LMFP
- SolubilityHigh (~128 g/L)
- SourceSpodumene (direct), brine (via Li₂CO₃ conversion)
- Price tierHigher (premium for high-Ni chemistry)
- StorageHygroscopic, caustic — stricter handling
LME contract: The LME lists Lithium Hydroxide CIF (Fastmarkets) — not Li₂CO₃ — because LiOH is the dominant feedstock for EV-grade high-Ni cathodes, which drive the marginal ton of lithium demand. (LME lithium hydroxide contract specs)
Nickel Class 1 vs Class 2 — why it matters for batteries
"Nickel" as a commodity is not one product. The LME-deliverable cathode, briquettes, and powder (Class 1) are battery-suitable after dissolution to sulfate. Nickel pig iron, ferronickel, and matte (Class 2) go almost entirely to stainless steel. The distinction drives a persistent price premium.
Class 1 nickel
≥99.8% Ni
- FormsCathode (full plate, cut), briquettes, powder, pellets
- RouteSulfide ore → concentrate → smelt → refine (electrowinning or carbonyl)
- End usePlating, specialty alloys, superalloys, batteries (dissolved to NiSO₄)
- Battery pathDissolve in H₂SO₄ → crystallise NiSO₄·6H₂O (battery-grade)
- LME deliverable?Yes (LME cathode, briquettes, powder)
- Major producersNorilsk, Vale, BHP, Sumitomo, Jinchuan
Class 2 nickel
~1.5–38% Ni
- FormsFerronickel (20–38% Ni), Nickel Pig Iron (4–15% Ni), matte (~75%), MHP, MSP
- RouteLaterite ore → rotary kiln / electric furnace (RKEF) or HPAL
- End useStainless steel (~95% of Class 2)
- Battery pathMHP/MSP (mixed hydroxide / sulfide precipitate) → leach → NiSO₄ (emerging HPAL route, Indonesia)
- LME deliverable?No (stainless-grade only)
- Major producersTsingshan (Indonesia), PT Vale Indonesia, Eramet, Antam
The Indonesia shift: Historically batteries used Class 1 nickel (sulfide ore). Tsingshan's 2021 breakthrough converting HPAL laterite intermediates (MHP) into battery-grade sulfate collapsed the Class 1/Class 2 wall and pushed Indonesian laterite supply into the EV supply chain. This is the single biggest structural shift in the nickel market this decade. (USGS MCS 2026 — Nickel)
Lead-acid Batteries
The oldest rechargeable chemistry, still dominant in automotive starter batteries, uninterruptible power supplies, and backup power. Global lead demand is roughly 80% driven by this chemistry.
| Material | Chemical form | Role | Used in |
|---|---|---|---|
| Lead |
Pb metallic (grid, negative plate) PbO₂ lead dioxide (positive plate) PbSO₄ lead sulfate (discharged state) |
positive platenegative plate | SLI (starter/lighting/ignition), UPS, traction, stationary |
| Sulfuric acid | H₂SO₄ 30–40% in water | electrolyte | All lead-acid batteries |
| Antimony / Calcium | Sb ~2% in Pb alloy (older), Ca in maintenance-free | alloying element (grid) | Pb-Sb (flooded), Pb-Ca (VRLA/AGM) |
Nickel-metal Hydride (NiMH)
Dominant in hybrid vehicles, power tools, and consumer electronics before Li-ion took over. Still used where cost matters more than energy density.
| Material | Chemical form | Role | Used in |
|---|---|---|---|
| Nickel | NiOOH / Ni(OH)₂ | positive electrode | All NiMH |
| Rare Earths | LaNi₅ / AB₅ alloys (La, Ce, Pr, Nd + Ni, Co, Mn) | negative electrode (hydrogen storage) | Hybrid vehicle batteries, consumer NiMH |
| Potassium | KOH potassium hydroxide, 30% aqueous | electrolyte | All NiMH and NiCd |
Flow Batteries (grid-scale storage)
Long-duration stationary storage (4–12 hour discharge). Energy is stored in liquid electrolytes in external tanks, not solid electrodes — so power and energy scale independently. Vanadium redox (VRFB) is the dominant commercial chemistry; Zn-Br and Fe-flow are emerging.
| Material | Chemical form | Role | Used in |
|---|---|---|---|
| Vanadium |
VOSO₄ vanadyl sulfate VO₂⁺ (V⁵⁺, charged — positive half-cell) VO²⁺ (V⁴⁺, discharged) V³⁺ (discharged — negative half-cell) V²⁺ (charged) |
both half-cells (single-element redox) | Vanadium redox flow batteries (VRFB) |
| Zinc | Zn metal, ZnBr₂ bromide, Zn(OH)₄²⁻ zincate | negative half-cell | Zn-Br, Zn-Fe, Zn-air flow batteries |
| Iron | Fe²⁺/Fe³⁺ in citrate or chloride complex | both half-cells (Fe-Fe flow) or one (Zn-Fe) | All-iron flow (ESS Inc.), Zn-Fe (ViZn) |
| Bromine | Br₂ / Br⁻, polybromide complexes | positive half-cell | Zn-Br flow (Redflow, Primus Power) |
| Sulfuric acid | H₂SO₄ 1.5–3 M | electrolyte solvent | All VRFB |
Why vanadium works uniquely well: Vanadium has four stable oxidation states in aqueous solution (V²⁺, V³⁺, V⁴⁺, V⁵⁺), so a single element can serve both half-cells. This eliminates cross-contamination problems that plague two-element redox couples — if membrane crossover occurs, the electrolyte can be fully recovered by rebalancing. Expected service life 20+ years with minimal degradation. Main drawbacks: low energy density (~25–35 Wh/L vs. ~250 Wh/L Li-ion), vanadium price volatility, and the cost of large electrolyte tanks. (USGS MCS 2026 — Vanadium; IEA — Batteries and Secure Energy Transitions 2024)
Notable projects: The 100 MW / 400 MWh Dalian VRFB in China (Rongke Power, phase 1 commissioned 2022) is the world's largest flow battery by capacity. Hubei Zaoyang 100 MW / 500 MWh and Xinjiang Urumqi 100 MW / 500 MWh follow. Western deployments are smaller: Invinity's EnerVenue and Sumitomo Electric projects in the US and Japan are in the 10–50 MWh range. (IEA Batteries Report)
Emerging chemistries (Na-ion and beyond)
Sodium-ion batteries are now commercially produced by CATL, BYD, and others. They use abundant materials (Na replaces Li) and are cheaper, with lower energy density. Typical cathode is a Prussian-blue analog or layered oxide.
| Material | Chemical form | Role | Used in |
|---|---|---|---|
| Sodium | Na₃V₂(PO₄)₃, NaNi₁/₃Mn₁/₃Fe₁/₃O₂, Prussian-blue Na₂MnFe(CN)₆ | cathode active material | Na-ion (stationary storage, low-end EVs) |
| Hard carbon | C non-graphitizable carbon | anode (Na-ion cannot intercalate graphite efficiently) | Na-ion |
From Ore to Battery — typical concentrations along the chain
Battery metals start in the ground at very low concentrations. Mining, beneficiation, smelting, and refining progressively upgrade the material to the purity required by the cathode or anode plant. Numbers below are typical ranges from primary sources — individual deposits vary widely.
Run-of-mine ore
Spodumene pegmatite
1.0–2.0% Li₂O
Concentrate (flotation)
Spodumene concentrate
6.0–7.0% Li₂O
Intermediate salt
Li₂SO₄ (after acid roast/leach)
—
Battery precursor
Li₂CO₃ or LiOH·H₂O
≥99.5% Li₂CO₃
Raw brine
Salar (Atacama)
200–1,500 ppm Li
Concentrated brine
After solar evaporation (12–18 mo)
~6% Li (~60,000 ppm)
Battery precursor
Li₂CO₃ (direct precipitation)
≥99.5%
Run-of-mine ore
Pentlandite / pyrrhotite
1.5–3% Ni
Concentrate (flotation)
Nickel sulfide concentrate
10–20% Ni
Matte (smelt)
Ni₃S₂ matte
~75% Ni
Refined (LME)
Cathode / briquettes
≥99.8% Ni
Battery precursor
NiSO₄·6H₂O
~22% Ni
Run-of-mine ore
Limonite / saprolite (laterite)
0.8–2.5% Ni
HPAL leachate
Ni-Co pregnant liquor
—
Intermediate
MHP (Mixed Hydroxide Precipitate)
~35–40% Ni
Battery precursor
NiSO₄·6H₂O (re-leach)
~22% Ni
Run-of-mine ore
Heterogenite (oxide) / carrollite (sulfide)
0.3–1.0% Co (DRC)
Concentrate
Cu-Co concentrate (co-product)
—
Intermediate
Cobalt hydroxide (from SX-EW tailings)
~30–40% Co
Battery precursor
CoSO₄·7H₂O
~21% Co
Run-of-mine ore
Porphyry (chalcopyrite)
0.3–1.0% Cu
Concentrate (flotation)
Copper concentrate
~25–30% Cu
Refined (LME)
Cathode, Grade A
≥99.9935% Cu
Battery form
Rolled Cu foil, 6–12 μm
≥99.99% Cu
Run-of-mine ore
Titaniferous magnetite
0.3–2.0% V₂O₅
Steel slag co-product
Vanadium-bearing slag (BOF)
~0.9% V₂O₅
Intermediate
V₂O₅ flake (salt roast / leach)
≥98% V₂O₅
Flow-battery form
VOSO₄ electrolyte (1.6 M V in H₂SO₄)
—
Run-of-mine ore
Graphitic schist
5–20% C
Concentrate (flotation)
Flake graphite concentrate
94–98% C
Purification
Thermal or acid-leach
≥99.95% C (battery grade)
Anode form
Spheroidised, coated (CSPG)
≥99.95% C
Concentration factors (intuition): Lithium from spodumene → Li₂CO₃ is a ~50× upgrade. Copper from porphyry ore → cathode is ~333×. Cobalt from African copperbelt ore → CoSO₄ is ~50×. Vanadium from titanomagnetite → V₂O₅ is ~100×. Each step in the chain carries energy, reagent, waste, and royalty costs — which is why "raw tonnes mined" looks nothing like "tonnes delivered to the cathode plant."
Sources
- USGS — Mineral Commodity Summaries 2026 — reserves, production, end-use data for lithium, cobalt, nickel, graphite, manganese, vanadium, lead, zinc, rare earths.
- IEA — Global Critical Minerals Outlook 2024 — battery chemistry market shares, demand forecasts, cathode/anode material breakdown.
- IEA — Global EV Outlook 2024 — EV battery chemistry split (NMC vs LFP), supply chain.
- LME — EV metals contract specifications — lithium hydroxide, cobalt metal standard & alloy-grade, nickel sulfate contract specs.
- ScienceDirect — Lithium-ion Battery reference topics — cathode/anode chemistry, electrolyte composition (peer-reviewed).
- IEA — Batteries and Secure Energy Transitions 2024 — flow battery deployment, grid storage project pipeline.
- USGS MCS 2026 — Nickel and Vanadium — Class 1/Class 2 definitions, HPAL and titanomagnetite processing routes.
- Vanitec — Making Vanadium — titaniferous magnetite ore grades, steel-slag coproduct route.
- NREL — Techno-Economic Analysis of Lithium Extraction (2021) — spodumene ore vs. concentrate grades.
This page is a reference, not investment advice. Chemistry details are simplified for readability; commercial formulations vary by manufacturer. Concentrations are typical industry ranges — individual deposits and refineries vary. More materials (Li-S, solid-state, Zn-air) will be added in future revisions.